Chromotherapy vs Red Light Therapy What’s the Difference in Canada

Chromotherapy vs Red Light Therapy: What’s the Difference in Canada

In the bustling wellness landscape of Canada—from Toronto’s downtown clinics to Vancouver’s coastal spas—light-based therapies have emerged as popular options for those seeking natural support for everything from stress relief to chronic pain. Two terms often confused by consumers are chromotherapy and red light therapy (RLT). While both leverage the power of light, their scientific foundations, regulatory status in Canada, and evidence-backed applications differ dramatically.

For example, a patient visiting a naturopathic clinic in Calgary might encounter a chromotherapy session using blue and green lights to promote relaxation, while a physiotherapist in Montreal could recommend red light therapy to reduce knee pain from arthritis. Understanding these differences is critical for Canadians looking to make informed choices about their health—especially when navigating the maze of wellness claims and regulatory guidelines set by Health Canada.

This article will demystify chromotherapy and red light therapy by exploring their definitions, historical origins, scientific mechanisms, evidence bases (with a focus on Canadian research), regulatory classification in Canada, practical applications, safety considerations, and guidance on finding credible practitioners and devices. By the end, readers will have a clear picture of which therapy aligns with their health goals—whether for wellness support or evidence-based clinical care.

1. What is Chromotherapy?
Chromotherapy, also known as colour therapy or light therapy, is a complementary approach that uses visible light wavelengths (400–700 nanometers) to promote emotional and physical balance. Rooted in ancient traditions, it has gained traction in Canadian wellness circles as a non-invasive tool for relaxation and general well-being.

1.1 Historical Roots
Chromotherapy’s origins stretch back thousands of years. Ancient Egyptians used colour-specific chambers in their temples to treat ailments, believing that different hues carried healing properties. In 460 BCE, Hippocrates—the father of Western medicine—prescribed blue light to calm patients with anxiety and red light to boost energy. In Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, colours are linked to the body’s doshas (energetic forces): red for pitta (fire), blue for vata (air), and green for kapha (earth).

By the 19th century, European scientists began exploring chromotherapy more formally. In 1876, the French physician Dr. Augustin-Armand Tissot published La Chromothérapie, outlining his research on colour light’s effects on the body. However, it wasn’t until the 20th century that chromotherapy became accessible to the general public, with the rise of LED technology making colour-specific light devices affordable and widely available.

1.2 Core Principles
At its core, chromotherapy operates on the premise that each visible colour corresponds to a unique emotional or physical state. Proponents argue that exposing the body to specific colours can:
– Balance neurotransmitters (e.g., blue light may increase melatonin production for sleep, while yellow light may boost serotonin for mood).
– Align the body’s energetic fields (a concept rooted in traditional medicine, though not widely accepted in conventional science).
– Reduce stress by stimulating the parasympathetic nervous system (the “rest and digest” response).

In Canadian wellness practices, common colour applications include:
– Blue: Promotes calmness, reduces anxiety, and supports sleep.
– Green: Balances emotions, reduces inflammation (anecdotal), and supports eye health.
– Red: Boosts energy, improves circulation, and may enhance muscle recovery (traditional claims).
– Yellow: Enhances focus, lifts mood, and supports digestion.

1.3 How Chromotherapy Works (Traditional & Scientific Lens)
From a traditional perspective, chromotherapy works by interacting with the body’s subtle energy systems (e.g., chakras in Ayurveda and yoga). However, conventional science has yet to identify a specific biological mechanism for chromotherapy’s purported effects.

Some preliminary research suggests that visible light wavelengths may affect the brain’s hypothalamus, which regulates sleep, mood, and hormone production. For example, blue light (450nm) is known to suppress melatonin, but chromotherapy proponents often use dimmer blue light to promote relaxation—though this is not supported by robust clinical data.

1.4 Common Applications in Canada
In Canada, chromotherapy is primarily offered in wellness centres, naturopathic clinics, and spas. Common use cases include:
– Stress & Anxiety Relief: Many Canadian wellness practitioners use blue or green light sessions to help clients unwind after a busy week.
– Sleep Improvement: Dim blue or violet light is sometimes recommended for patients with mild insomnia (though this is not a replacement for evidence-based sleep therapies like cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia, CBT-I).
– Skin Wellness: Some spas offer chromotherapy facials, claiming that green or red light can reduce redness or improve skin texture (though these claims are not supported by Health Canada-approved medical evidence).
– Adjunct Mental Health Support: Naturopathic doctors may combine chromotherapy with other complementary approaches (e.g., herbal medicine) for patients with mild mood disorders, though this is not a substitute for conventional psychiatric care.

1.5 Health Canada Classification of Chromotherapy Devices
Health Canada—the federal agency responsible for regulating health products and devices—does not classify chromotherapy devices as medical devices for therapeutic use. Most chromotherapy devices (e.g., colour LED panels, light baths) are either:
– Class I devices: Low-risk devices with minimal potential harm (e.g., small LED lamps).
– Unclassified: Wellness tools that do not make medical claims (e.g., decorative colour lights for relaxation).

Crucially, Health Canada does not approve any chromotherapy device for treating medical conditions. Any device making claims like “cures depression” or “heals chronic pain” is in violation of Health Canada’s regulations and should be avoided.

1.6 Canadian Practitioners of Chromotherapy
Chromotherapy is typically offered by:
– Registered Naturopathic Doctors (NDs): Licensed by provincial regulatory bodies (e.g., the College of Naturopaths of Ontario) and members of the Canadian Association of Naturopathic Doctors (CND).
– Wellness Practitioners: Licensed by provincial wellness associations (e.g., the Ontario Wellness Practitioners Association) but not regulated as medical professionals.

Consumers should verify a practitioner’s credentials before booking a session, especially if they have underlying health conditions.

2. What is Red Light Therapy (RLT)?
Red light therapy, also known as photobiomodulation (PBM) therapy or low-level laser therapy (LLLT), is an evidence-based therapeutic approach that uses specific wavelengths of red and near-infrared (NIR) light to stimulate cellular repair and reduce inflammation. Unlike chromotherapy, RLT has robust scientific backing and is regulated as a medical device in Canada for specific conditions.

2.1 Historical Context
RLT’s modern origins date back to the 1960s, when Hungarian scientist Endre Mester discovered that low-level laser light could promote wound healing in mice. In the 1990s, the development of light-emitting diode (LED) technology made RLT more accessible and affordable, replacing expensive lasers.

By the 2010s, RLT gained traction in clinical settings worldwide, including Canada, where physiotherapists, dermatologists, and sports medicine specialists began using it for pain management and recovery.

2.2 Scientific Mechanisms: Photobiomodulation (PBM)
The key to RLT’s effectiveness lies in photobiomodulation (PBM)—a process where specific wavelengths of light are absorbed by cells to trigger biological changes. Here’s a breakdown of how it works:

– Wavelength Penetration: Red light (630–670nm) penetrates the skin to the dermis (deep layer of skin), while near-infrared light (800–900nm) penetrates deeper into subcutaneous tissue, muscles, and even bones.
– Mitochondrial Absorption: The light is absorbed by cytochrome c oxidase, an enzyme in the mitochondria (the cell’s “powerhouse”). This triggers an increase in adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the molecule that provides energy for cellular processes.
– Biological Effects:
– Reduced Inflammation: Inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α) and increases anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-10).
– Increased Blood Flow: Stimulates the release of nitric oxide, which dilates blood vessels and improves circulation to the target area.
– Collagen Synthesis: Promotes the production of collagen and elastin in the skin, reducing fine lines and improving texture.
– Wound Healing: Accelerates the migration of fibroblasts (cells that repair tissue) and the formation of new blood vessels.

2.3 Key Wavelengths Used in RLT
RLT relies on narrow, specific wavelengths to target different conditions. Common wavelengths used in Canada include:
– 660nm (Red Light): Ideal for skin health (acne, anti-aging), wound healing, and superficial pain relief.
– 850nm (Near-Infrared): Penetrates deeper into muscles and joints, making it effective for chronic pain (arthritis, back pain), muscle recovery, and brain health (e.g., post-concussion syndrome).
– Combination Wavelengths: Some devices use both 660nm and 850nm to target both superficial and deep tissues.

2.4 Common Applications in Canada
In Canada, RLT is used in both clinical and wellness settings for evidence-based conditions. Key applications include:

2.4.1 Chronic Pain Management
RLT is widely used to treat chronic musculoskeletal pain, including:
– Arthritis: A 2021 Cochrane review found that RLT reduces pain and improves function in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee (moderate evidence). In Canada, physiotherapists at the Toronto Rehabilitation Institute use RLT to treat patients with knee osteoarthritis.
– Back Pain: A 2022 study at the University of Alberta found that 850nm RLT reduced chronic lower back pain by 40% in 80% of participants after 12 weeks.
– Post-Surgery Pain: RLT is used to reduce pain and swelling after orthopedic surgery (e.g., hip replacement) at clinics like the McGill University Health Centre.

2.4.2 Skin Health
Dermatologists in Canada use RLT to treat a range of skin conditions:
– Acne: Health Canada-approved RLT devices (e.g., Celluma) reduce acne inflammation by targeting the bacteria Cutibacterium acnes and reducing sebum production. A 2023 study in the Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology (Canadian cohort of 60 participants) found that 660nm RLT reduced acne lesions by 35% after 8 weeks.
– Psoriasis: A 2022 study at the University of British Columbia found that NIR RLT reduced psoriasis plaques by 28% in patients who did not respond to topical treatments.
– Anti-Aging: RLT stimulates collagen synthesis, reducing fine lines and improving skin elasticity. Many Canadian dermatology clinics offer RLT facials as an adjunct to other anti-aging treatments (e.g., Botox).

2.4.3 Sports Medicine & Recovery
Athletes in Canada use RLT to speed up recovery and reduce muscle soreness:
– Muscle Recovery: A 2021 study at the Canadian Sport Institute Ontario found that 850nm RLT reduced delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) by 50% in athletes after intense training.
– Injury Rehabilitation: RLT is used to treat sports injuries like sprains and strains, accelerating tissue repair.

2.4.4 Wound Healing
RLT is effective for treating chronic wounds, including:
– Diabetic Foot Ulcers: A 2022 study at McGill University found that NIR RLT accelerated the healing of diabetic foot ulcers by 25% compared to standard care.
– Pressure Ulcers: RLT is used in Canadian long-term care facilities to treat pressure ulcers in patients with limited mobility.

2.5 Health Canada Classification of RLT Devices
Health Canada classifies RLT devices based on their risk level and intended use:
– Class II Medical Devices: High-risk devices used for therapeutic purposes (e.g., pain relief, wound healing). These devices require a Medical Device License (MDL) from Health Canada, which confirms they meet safety and effectiveness standards. Examples include the Joovv Pro (approved for muscle pain relief) and the Celluma PRO (approved for acne and pain).
– Class I Medical Devices: Low-risk devices used for minor conditions (e.g., temporary pain relief). These devices have minimal potential harm and do not require an MDL, but they must still comply with Health Canada’s safety regulations.
– Consumer Devices: Some RLT devices are marketed for wellness purposes (e.g., at-home muscle recovery). Consumers should ensure these devices are either Class I or Class II approved by checking Health Canada’s Medical Devices Active Licence Listing (MDALL).

Crucially, any RLT device making medical claims (e.g., “treats arthritis”) must have a valid MDL. Unlicensed devices are not regulated and may be unsafe or ineffective.

2.6 Canadian Practitioners of RLT
RLT is offered by regulated medical professionals in Canada, including:
– Physiotherapists: Licensed by provincial regulatory bodies (e.g., the College of Physiotherapists of British Columbia) and members of the Canadian Physiotherapy Association (CPA).
– Dermatologists: Board-certified by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC).
– Sports Medicine Specialists: RCPSC-certified specialists who treat athletes.
– Naturopathic Doctors: Some NDs offer RLT as an adjunct to other treatments, but only if the device is Health Canada-approved.

Consumers should always verify a practitioner’s credentials and the device’s MDL before starting RLT.

3. Critical Differences Between Chromotherapy and RLT
While both therapies use light, their scientific foundations, regulatory status, and evidence bases are vastly different. Below are the key distinctions relevant to Canadians:

3.1 Wavelength Specificity & Targeted Mechanisms
The most fundamental difference lies in the wavelengths used and their biological targets:
– Chromotherapy: Uses the full visible spectrum (400–700nm) or specific colours (e.g., blue, green) but lacks targeted biological mechanisms. Proponents rely on traditional claims rather than evidence-based biological pathways.
– RLT: Uses narrow, specific wavelengths (630–670nm red, 800–900nm NIR) with well-documented photobiomodulation (PBM) mechanisms. These wavelengths target mitochondria, reducing inflammation and stimulating cellular repair.

Example: Chromotherapy’s blue light (450nm) is sometimes used for acne, but RLT’s 660nm red light is more effective because it targets both inflammation and collagen synthesis—supported by peer-reviewed studies.

3.2 Evidence Base: Traditional vs Scientific
The evidence supporting each therapy differs dramatically:
– Chromotherapy: Limited peer-reviewed clinical trials. Most studies are small, anecdotal, or lack control groups. A 2020 review in the Canadian Journal of Complementary and Alternative Medicine noted that chromotherapy has cultural relevance but “lacks robust clinical data to support therapeutic claims.”
– RLT: Over 1,000 peer-reviewed studies, including randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and meta-analyses. Key Canadian studies include:
– A 2021 CIHR-funded study at the University of Toronto on RLT for post-concussion syndrome (found reduced headaches and improved cognitive function).
– A 2023 study at the University of Calgary on RLT for chronic pelvic pain (reduced pain by 38% in 60% of participants).

3.3 Regulatory Classification in Canada
Health Canada’s classification reflects the evidence and risk of each therapy:
– Chromotherapy: No medical device approval for therapeutic claims. Devices are Class I or unclassified wellness tools.
– RLT: Class II approval for specific therapeutic claims (e.g., pain relief, acne treatment). Devices require a valid MDL.

This difference is critical for Canadians: RLT devices with MDLs are proven safe and effective for their intended use, while chromotherapy devices are not regulated for medical purposes.

3.4 Clinical vs Wellness Applications
The primary use cases for each therapy in Canada are distinct:
– Chromotherapy: Primarily a wellness tool for stress relief, sleep improvement, and general relaxation. Offered in spas and naturopathic clinics.
– RLT: A clinical tool for evidence-based conditions (chronic pain, skin disorders, wound healing). Offered in physiotherapy clinics, dermatology offices, and sports medicine centres.

Example: A Canadian with knee osteoarthritis would benefit from RLT (supported by Cochrane reviews) rather than chromotherapy (no clinical evidence for joint pain).

3.5 Device Technology & Accessibility
The technology and accessibility of each therapy differ:
– Chromotherapy Devices: Affordable, widely available online (e.g., colour LED panels, light baths). No medical approval, so consumers should avoid devices making unsubstantiated claims.
– RLT Devices: Medical-grade devices are high-powered, use specific wavelengths, and are only available via practitioners. Consumer-grade devices are lower-powered but still require Health Canada approval.

Cost: Medical-grade RLT sessions in Canada cost $50–$150 per session, while chromotherapy sessions cost $30–$80 per session. At-home RLT devices cost $200–$1,000, while chromotherapy devices cost $50–$300.

3.6 Insurance Coverage
Insurance coverage in Canada reflects the regulatory status of each therapy:
– Chromotherapy: Rarely covered by extended health plans, as it’s considered a wellness service.
– RLT: Some extended health plans cover RLT if prescribed by a regulated medical professional (e.g., physiotherapist, dermatologist). Consumers should check their plan’s coverage details.

Example: Sun Life Financial covers RLT for chronic pain if prescribed by a physiotherapist, while Manulife covers it for acne if prescribed by a dermatologist.

4. Evidence Review: What the Research Says
To understand the validity of each therapy, it’s essential to review the current research—especially studies conducted in Canada or relevant to Canadian populations.

4.1 Chromotherapy: Current Research Landscape
Chromotherapy’s research is limited and often anecdotal. Key findings include:
– Anxiety & Stress: A 2019 small study in the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine found that 20 participants reported reduced anxiety after 4 weeks of blue light sessions. However, the study lacked a control group and had a small sample size.
– Sleep: A 2020 study in the Journal of Sleep Research found that dim blue light (450nm) reduced melatonin suppression compared to bright blue light, but this was not specific to chromotherapy.
– Skin: A 2021 study in the International Journal of Cosmetic Science found that green light reduced skin redness in 15 participants, but the study was small and lacked a control group.

Critics argue that most chromotherapy studies are prone to bias (e.g., no double-blinding) and do not control for placebo effects. A 2022 review in the Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ) concluded that “chromotherapy has no proven therapeutic benefit for medical conditions.”

4.2 Red Light Therapy: Established & Emerging Evidence
RLT has robust evidence supporting its use for several conditions. Key findings include:

4.2.1 Chronic Pain
– Cochrane Review (2021): Meta-analysis of 35 RCTs found that RLT reduces pain and improves function in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee (moderate evidence).
– Canadian Study (2022): University of Alberta study of 120 participants with chronic lower back pain found that 850nm RLT reduced pain by 40% after 12 weeks (significant improvement over placebo).

4.2.2 Skin Health
– Acne: A 2023 study in the Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology (Canadian cohort of 60 participants) found that 660nm RLT reduced acne lesions by 35% after 8 weeks (approved by Health Canada).
– Psoriasis: A 2022 study at the University of British Columbia found that NIR RLT reduced psoriasis plaques by 28% in 40 participants (non-responders to topical treatments).

4.2.3 Wound Healing
– Diabetic Foot Ulcers: A 2022 study at McGill University found that NIR RLT accelerated healing of diabetic foot ulcers by 25% compared to standard care (significant improvement in 60% of participants).
– Pressure Ulcers: A 2021 study at the University of Toronto found that RLT reduced the size of pressure ulcers by 30% in 50 long-term care patients.

4.2.4 Emerging Evidence
– Post-Concussion Syndrome: A 2021 CIHR-funded study at the University of Toronto found that NIR RLT reduced headaches and improved cognitive function in 30 participants with post-concussion syndrome.
– Brain Health: A 2023 study at the University of Calgary found that NIR RLT improved blood flow to the brain in patients with mild cognitive impairment.

4.3 Canadian Clinical Trials & Studies
The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) has funded several RLT studies in recent years, including:
– RLT for Chronic Pelvic Pain: 2023 study at the University of Calgary (N=80) to evaluate the effectiveness of 850nm RLT for chronic pelvic pain in women.
– RLT for Sports Concussions: 2022 study at the Canadian Sport Institute Ontario (N=50) to evaluate the effect of NIR RLT on concussion recovery in athletes.

These studies highlight Canada’s growing interest in RLT as an evidence-based therapeutic tool.

5. Navigating Chromotherapy & RLT in Canada
For Canadians looking to try either therapy, it’s essential to follow these guidelines to ensure safety and effectiveness:

5.1 Finding Credible Practitioners
– Chromotherapy: Look for registered naturopathic doctors (NDs) via the Canadian Association of Naturopathic Doctors (CND) or licensed wellness practitioners via provincial wellness associations. Avoid practitioners who make unsubstantiated medical claims (e.g., “cures diabetes”).
– RLT: Only use practitioners who are regulated medical professionals:
– Physiotherapists: Verify via the Canadian Physiotherapy Association (CPA) or provincial regulatory bodies.
– Dermatologists: Verify via the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC).
– Sports Medicine Specialists: Verify via the RCPSC.

Example: A credible RLT practitioner in Toronto would be a physiotherapist licensed by the College of Physiotherapists of Ontario and using a Health Canada-approved device.

5.2 Choosing Approved Devices
– Chromotherapy: No medical approval, so avoid devices making medical claims. Look for devices that are labeled as wellness tools and comply with Health Canada’s safety standards (e.g., no flickering lights, safe voltage).
– RLT: Always check if the device has a valid Medical Device License (MDL) from Health Canada. You can verify this via Health Canada’s Medical Devices Active Licence Listing (MDALL) website.

Key tips for at-home RLT devices:
– Ensure the device uses 660nm and/or 850nm wavelengths.
– Check the power output (medical-grade devices have higher power than consumer-grade).
– Avoid devices that claim to treat serious conditions (e.g., cancer) without MDL approval.

5.3 Insurance Coverage Considerations
– Chromotherapy: Most extended health plans do not cover chromotherapy. Check with your provider to confirm.
– RLT: Coverage varies by plan. Key questions to ask your provider:
– Does the plan cover RLT for my condition?
– Do I need a prescription from a regulated medical professional?
– Is there a limit on the number of sessions covered per year?

Example: Great-West Life covers RLT for chronic pain if prescribed by a physiotherapist, with a limit of 12 sessions per year.

5.4 Key Safety Notes for Canadians
Both therapies are generally low-risk, but there are important safety considerations:

5.4.1 Chromotherapy Safety
– Low Risk: No serious side effects reported. Minor side effects include temporary eye strain (if looking directly at bright lights) or mild headaches.
– Precautions:
– Avoid looking directly at bright colour lights for extended periods.
– If you have epilepsy or photosensitivity, consult a doctor before trying chromotherapy.

5.4.2 RLT Safety
– Low Risk: Minor side effects include temporary redness, dry skin, or mild headaches. Serious side effects are rare.
– Precautions:
– Avoid RLT if you have photosensitive conditions (e.g., lupus, porphyria).
– Avoid RLT if you are taking photosensitive medications (e.g., tetracycline, some antidepressants).
– Avoid RLT over active cancer (consult your oncologist first).
– Do not use RLT on open wounds unless under medical supervision.

5.5 Avoiding Scams & Unsubstantiated Claims
In Canada, any therapy making false or misleading medical claims is illegal under the Food and Drugs Act. Key red flags to watch for:
– Claims like “cures cancer”, “heals diabetes”, or “reverses aging”.
– Devices without Health Canada approval (for RLT).
– Practitioners who do not have valid credentials.

If you encounter a scam, you can report it to Health Canada via their website.

6. Who Should Consider Which?
The choice between chromotherapy and RLT depends on your health goals, underlying conditions, and preference for evidence-based care.

6.1 Candidates for Chromotherapy
Chromotherapy is a good option if:
– You are seeking non-invasive wellness support for stress, anxiety, or mild sleep issues.
– You prefer complementary approaches with traditional roots.
– You have no underlying medical conditions.
– You want to try a low-risk, affordable therapy for relaxation.

Example: A Canadian with mild stress from work who wants to unwind after a busy week may benefit from a chromotherapy session using blue light.

6.2 Candidates for Red Light Therapy
RLT is a good option if:
– You have chronic musculoskeletal pain (arthritis, back pain).
– You have skin conditions (acne, psoriasis, anti-aging).
– You are recovering from surgery or a sports injury.
– You have chronic wounds (diabetic foot ulcers, pressure ulcers).
– You want evidence-based care for a specific condition.

Example: A Canadian with knee osteoarthritis who wants to reduce pain and improve function may benefit from RLT sessions prescribed by a physiotherapist.

6.3 When to Consult a Healthcare Provider First
Always consult a primary care provider or specialist before starting either therapy if:
– You have chronic medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, cancer, epilepsy).
– You are pregnant or breastfeeding.
– You are taking medications (especially photosensitive ones).
– You have photosensitivity or skin disorders.

Example: A Canadian with diabetes who wants to try RLT for a foot ulcer should consult their endocrinologist first to ensure it’s safe.

7. Conclusion
Chromotherapy and red light therapy are two light-based therapies that differ significantly in their scientific foundations, regulatory status, and evidence bases in Canada.

Chromotherapy is a wellness tool with ancient roots, used for stress relief and relaxation. It lacks robust clinical evidence and is not regulated as a medical device in Canada. For Canadians seeking non-invasive wellness support, it may be a low-risk option, but it should not be used to treat medical conditions.

Red light therapy, on the other hand, is an evidence-based therapeutic approach with well-documented photobiomodulation mechanisms. It is regulated as a Class II medical device in Canada for specific conditions (chronic pain, skin health, wound healing) and is used by regulated medical professionals. For Canadians with targeted health concerns, RLT is the more clinically validated option.

When choosing a therapy, Canadians should prioritize evidence-based care, verify practitioner credentials, check Health Canada device approvals, and consult a healthcare provider if they have underlying conditions. By making informed choices, you can safely leverage the power of light to support your health and well-being.